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Cc�mprchci��i��c Nci�hb<�urh�x,d StucGc�: C'h,u�.ictcrii.in�� Dcrlinc • Central cities have a wide range of institutions and social amenities that foster more economically diverse, and therefore more stable communities. The inner-ring's inexpensive housing is rarely unique, nor is it often accompanied by entertainment, amenities, or parks. • Cities tend to have a more participatory public culture. Suburbanites are more likely to be individualists, less interested in the neighbourhood social and political issues and are less involved in public concerns. • Central cities are heterogeneous and retain pockets of both stability and gentrification. Middle- and working-class suburbs are homogenous and do not have elite or gentrifying neighbourhoods. ■ Much of the housing stock in central cities is durable and offers amenities � such as stone or brick exteriors, hardwood floors, and built-in cabinetry that remain fashionable. Most post-World War II rapidly assembled and ' inexpensively constructed homes are not unique, and are in direct competition with more modern housing in outer-edge cities with less social stress. A review of the American literature clearly indicates that neighbourhood decline has been a prominent part of the process of urban development and evolution over the past three to four decades. Decline has a decidedly inner city focus, but several studies suggest that the process of decline can occur on a much broader geographical basis. There is growing evidence to suggest the older suburban neighbourhoods (developed before or immediately after World War II) are beginning to show characteristics typical of decline. Core studies from the literature also illustrate that although the characteristics, nature, and extent of decline vary from one city to the next, there are many commonalties. These commonalties manifest themselves in the nature of housing and commercial infrastructure, the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the population, the lack of investment in core areas, the presence of various social pathologies and the attitudes and opinions of residents within these areas and people fleeing these neighbourhoods or living in other parts of the city. Neighbourhood decline in American cities is also highly correlated with certain ethnic and racial groups. At times the depth of decline and level of despair in these neighbourhoods is overwhelming. 2.3. The European Experience A pattern of decentralisation can be seen in all Western European cities after World War II. According to a recent survey of European city officials, settlement patterns are becoming more complex and the continuing suburbanisation of population and jobs is one of the major features (OECD 1995, p. 15). Richardson and Gordon state (1999) that in many European cities (for instance, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Milan, Paris and Rotterdam) both population and employment grew faster in the suburbs than in the core city, even in the 1970s. More recent data show declines in central city population shares: Paris, 32-23 per cent, 1968-90; Zurich, 38-29 per cent, 1970-95; Amsterdam, 80-66 per cent, 1970-94; less so in London, 41-38 per cent, 1971-94 (ibid.). �-. .�. �i