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clerical, retail or nonunionized manufacturing or altogether unemployed.67 In many of America's oldest cities, thriving middle-class communities of the early and mid-twentieth century have given way to an ever-burgeoning group of have-nots. In an effort to diagnose and treat the malady of the declining American urban area, New Urbanist planners have increasingly turned to the pre-zoning city of the past as a model. Form-based code is one mechanism for this look backward. D. Form-based Code as New tlrbanist Tool Form-based code is part of a broader movement in planning theory which focuses on "communication, collaboration, mediation and diversity."68 Indeed, in recent years the use of words such as "radical"69or "insurgent"70 in association with planning schemes has signaled a fundamental alteration in the way that planning functions are carried out. Governmental authorities will no longer exercise an exclusive monopoly over the process;'i rather, the idea is 67 Boyer supra at 271. Consider the example of Cleveland, Ohio, which was once hailed as one of the wealthiest cities in the United States. See e.g. Herbert Harwood, Invisible Giants: The Empires of Cleveland's Van Sweringen Brothers 1(2003). Cleveland was the birthplace and longtime home to John D. Rockefeller, Sr., the founder of the Rockefeller empire. See generally Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (1998). Despite this glorious past, Cleveland was ranked the poorest city in the United States in 2004 and again in 2006. See Diane and Galnincea Suchetka, Barbara, Cleveland: Poorest Big City in the U. S., The Plain Dealer, August 30, 2006; Robert L. Smith & Dave Davis, Cleveland No. l in Big-City Poverty, Sports Final Edition, National A1 (2004). 68 John Friedmann, The Prospect of Cities 101 (2002). 69 See e.g. John Friedmann, Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action 412 (1987). 70 Leonie Sandercock, Cosmopolis II: Mongrel Cities in the Twenty-First Century 47 (2003). " Friedmann, The Prospect of Cities supra note 68, at 101. 20